Bone Cancer : Type, Symptom, Risk Factor, Diagnosis, Stage, Treatment, And Drug

A Bone cancer is a neoplastic growth of tissue in bone.Primary cancer originates in bone or from bone-derived cells and tissues.Secondary cancer originates in other sites and metastasizes to the skeleton.Bone is the substance that forms the skeleton of the body.It is composed of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate.Bone serves as a storage area for calcium, playing a large role in calcium balance in the blood.

The Types of Bone Cancer :

• Osteosarcoma cancer begins in bone cells that make new bone tissue.It usually forms at the end of long bones, including the leg bones but can form in any bone.Teenagers and Adults over than 65 years old usually suffer this cancer.
• Ewing Sarcoma Cancer forms in the hip bones, the rib, or in the middle of long bones.It can form in soft tissue.The cancer occurs in teenagers and young adults.Localized Ewing Sarcoma is the cancer that is found in the bone or soft tissue.It begins and spreads to nearby tissue, such nearby as lymph nodes.Metastatic Ewing Sarcoma is the cancer that has spread from the bone or tissue.It begins to other parts of the body and spread to the lung, other bones, and bone marrow.

The Signs and symptoms Bone Cancer

• Bone pain
• Unexplained bone fractures
• Swelling and tenderness near the affected area
• Fatigue
• Unexplained weight loss
• Fever
• Anemia

The Risk Factors of Bone Cancer

• Hereditary retinoblastoma
• A certain change in the retinoblastoma  gene
• Paget disease
• Bloom syndrome
• Werner syndrome
• Rothmund-Thomson syndrome
• Diamond-Blackfan anemia
• Li-Fraumeni syndrome
• Exposure to large doses of radiation

Diagnosis

Some tests and procedures are done to diagnose bone cancer.

• Medical history is about patient's health habit and past illnesses.
• Physical exam is an exam of the body to check general signs of health.
• Bone Scan is to check if there are rapidly dividing cells, such as cancer cells in the bone.
• Chest X-Ray is an x-ray of organs and bones inside the chest.
• Computed Tomography (CT) scan is a procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a procedure that uses a magnet, radio, wave, and computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body.
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET) is a procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body.
• Biopsy is the removal of cells or tissues by viewing under a microscope to check the signs of cancer.Core Biopsy is the removal of  tissue by using a wide needle.Incisional Biopsy is the removal of part of a lump or a sample of tissue that does not look normal.
• Light and Electron Microscopy is a laboratory tests in which cells in a sample of tissue are viewed under regular and high-powered microscopes to look for certain changes in the cells.

The Stages of Bone Cancer

• Stage I : Cancer has not spread to other areas of the body.Cancer cells are less agressive.
• Stage II : Cancer has not spread to other areas of the body.Cancer cells are more agressive.
• Stage III : Cancer occurs in two or more places on the same bone.
• Stage IV : Cancer has spread beyond the bone to other areas of the body, including other bones or internal organs.

The Standard Treatments of Bone Cancer

1. Surgery

• Wide Local Excision is to remove the cancer and some healthy tissue around it.
• Limb Sparing Surgery is the removal of the tumor in a limb, such as arm or leg without amputation.
• Amputation is to remove part or all of an arm or leg.Hemipelvectomy (Hindquarter) is to remove the whole leg with one half of the pelvis.Forequarter is to remove the whole arm along with the shoulder blade and the clavicle.Hemicorporectomy (translumbar or waist amputation) is to remove the legs, the pelvis, urinary system, excretory system and degital areas (vagina or vulva in female and penis or testes in male).
• Rotationplasty (Van Nes Rotation) is to remove the tumor and the knee joint.

2. Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or stopping them from dividing.

3. Radiation Therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing.

Types of radiation therapy :

• External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer.
• Internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive subtance sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer.

4. Samarium is a radioactive drug that targets areas where bone cells are growing, such as tumor cells in bone.It helps in killing blood cells in the bone marrow and relieving pain caused by cancer in the bone.

5. Targeted Therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells.

The Drugs for Bone Cancer :

• Abitrexate (Methotrexate)
• Cosmegen (Dactinomycin)
• Dactinomycin
• Denosumab
• Doxorubicin Hydrochloride
• Folex  (Methotrexate)
• Folex  PFS (Methotrexate)
• Methotrexate
• Methotrexate LPF (Methotrexate)
• Mexate (Methotrexate)
• Mexate-AQ (Methotrexate)
• Xgeva (Denosumab)
• Metastron

Eye Cancer : Type, Symptom, Risk Factor, Diagnosis, And Treatment

An Eye cancer is cancer that begins in the eyes.Intraocular cancer is the cancer that starts inside the eyeball.Eye cancer can affect the outer parts of the eye, including eyelid, which are made of muscles, skin, and nerves.

The major parts of eye consist of

1. Eyeball (globe) is mostly filled with a jelly-like material called vitreous humor.Three layers of the eyeball are :

• Sclera is the tough, white covering over most of the outside of the eyeball.
• Uvea is the middle layer of the eyeball.It has three parts.The irish is the colored part of the eye.The choroid is a thin, pigmented layer lining the eyeball that nourishes the retina and the front of the eye with blood.The ciliary body contains the muscles inside the eye that change the shape of the lens so that the eye can focus near or distant object.
• Retina is the inner layer of cells in the back of the eye.

2. Orbit consists of the tissues surrounding the eyeball.

3. Adnexal Structures include the eyelids and tear glands.

The Types of Eye cancer

1. Cancer involving the Eyeball :

• Uveal Melanoma is melanoma of the irish, choroid, and ciliary body.
• Retinoblastoma is the most cancer type that affects the eyeball in children.It is a cancer that starts in cells in the retina.

2. Cancers of the Eyelid and surrounding skin :

• Basal Cell Carcinoma
• Squamous Cell Carcinoma
• Sebaceous Carcinoma
• Melanoma
• Merkel Cell Carcinoma
• Adnexal Carcinoma

3. Orbital Cancers :

• Orbital Lymphoma
• Orbital Sarcoma includes myxoid sarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, alveolar soft part sarcoma
• Orbital and Optic Nerve Meningioma
• Metastatic Tumors of the Orbit
• Other Carcinomas of the Orbit

4. Lacrimal Gland Tumors :

• Lymphoma of Lacrimal Gland
• Adenoid Cystic  Carcinoma of Lacrimal Gland
• Pleomorphic Adenoma of Lacrimal Gland
• Other Epithelial Tumors of Lacrimal Gland

The Symptoms of Eye Cancer

• Sudden loss of vision
• Blurry vision
• Losing part of the sight field
• Swelling or redness in the eye
• Flashes and Floaters
• Pigmented (dark) area on the conjunctiva
• Ulceration of the eyelid
• Loss of eyelashes
• A small, firm, raised lump with a lesion in the center on the eyelid
• Growing dark spot on irish
• Brown or pigmented lesion on the eyelid
• Sty that does not heal
• Change of eyeball position or the way of eye moves
• Double vision
• Change in the shape or size of pupil
• Bulging of eye
• Orbital or ocular pain
• Bloody tears
• Excessive tearing

Risk Factors of Eye cancer

• Race or Ethnicity
• Increasing age
• Gender
• Being white
• The color of eye
• Exposure to sunlight or tanning beds
• Certain inherited conditions, such as Dysplastic Nevus Syndrome
• Exposure to certain viruses, such as Human Papilloma Virus  (HPV)

Diagnosis

Tests and procedures are done to diagnose eye cancer.

• Medical history is about patient's health habit and past illnesses.
• Physical exam is an exam of the body to check general signs of health.
• Eye Exam with dilated pupil is an exam of the eye in which the pupil is dilated with medicated eye drops to allow the doctor to look through the lens and pupil to the retina.The are some types of eye exams.Ophthalmoscopy is an exam of the inside of the back of the eye to check the retina and optic nerve by using a small magnifying lens and a light.Slit-Lamp Biomicroscopy is an exam of the inside of the eye to check the retina, optic nerve and other parts of  the eye by using a strong beam of light and a microscope.Gonioscopy is an exam of the front part of the eye between the cornea and iris.
• Biopsy is the removal of cells or tissues by viewing under a microscope to check the signs of cancer.
• Blood Chemistry Studies is  a procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood  by organs and tissues in the body.
• Liver Function Test is a procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by the liver.
• Ultrasound Exam is a procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes.
• Transillumination of the Globe and Iris is an exam of the iris, cornea, lens, and ciliary body with a light placed on either the upper or lower lid.Fluorescein Angiography is a procedure to look at blood vessels and the flow of blood inside the eye.Indocyanine Green Angiography is  procedure to look at blood vessels in the choroid layer of the eye.
• Chest X-Ray is an x-ray of organs and bones inside the chest.
• Computed Tomography (CT) scan is a procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a procedure that uses a magnet, radio, wave, and computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body.
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET) is a procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body.

The Stages of Eye Cancer

• Stage I : Cancer is not growing into the ciliary body or growing outside the eyeball.Cancer has not spread to nearby lymph nodes.It has not spread to distant parts of the body.
• Stage II : Cancer is growing into the ciliary body and also outside the eyeball.The part of the tumor that is outside the eyeball is 5 mm or less.Cancer has not spread to nearby lymph nodes.It has not spread to distant parts of the body.
• Stage IIIA : Cancer is growing into the ciliary body and also outside the eyeball.The part of the tumor that is outside the eyeball is 5 mm or less across in size.Cancer has not spread to nearby lymph nodes.It has not spread to distant parts of the body. 
• Stage IIIB : The cancer can be any size .It is growing outside of the eyeball and the part of the cancer that is outside the eyeball is greater than 5 mm across.Cancer has not spread to nearby lymph nodes.It has not spread to distant parts of the body.
• Stage IV : The cancer can be any size.Cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes.Or It has spread to distant parts of the body.

The Treatments of Eye Cancer

1. Surgery

• Resection is to romove the tumor and a small amount of heathy tissue around it.
• Evisceration is to remove the eye contents, leaving the sclera or the white part of the eye.
• Enucleation is to remove the eye and part of the optic nerve.
• Exenteration is to remove the eye and the eyelid.
• Iridectomy is to remove the affected piece of the iris.
• Choroidectomy is to remove the choroid layer (the vascular tissue sandwhiched between the sclera and the retina).
• Iridocyclectomy is to remove the iris plus the ciliary body muscle.
• Eyewall Resection is to remove a tumor by cutting into the eye.

2. Watchful Waiting is to monitor closely the condition of a patient  without giving any treatment until signs or symptoms appear.

3. Radiation Theraphy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing.

Types of radiation therapy :

• External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer.
• Internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive subtance sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer.

Localized Plaque Radiation Therapy is a type of internal radiation therapy that may be used for tumors of the eye.

Charged-Particle External Beam Radiation Therapy is to kill cancer cells with little damage to nearby normal tissues.

Gamma Knife Therapy is a type of stereotactic radio surgery use for some melanomas.

4. Photocoagulation is a procedure that uses laser light to destroy blood vessels that bring nutrients to the tumor, causing the tumor cells to die.

5. Thermotherapy is the use of heat from a laser to destroy cancer cells and shrink the tumor.

6. Chemotherapy is a treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing.

Gallbladder Cancer : Symptom, Risk Factor, Diagnosis, Stage, Treatment, And Drug

Gallbladder Cancer is cancer cells found in the tissues of gallbladder.It is uncommon cancer.The gallbladder is a pear-shaped organ that lies under the liver in the upper abdomen.The wall of gallbladder has three main layers of tissue, such as mucosal (inner) layer, muscularis (middle, muscle) layer, and serosal (outer) layer.Gallbladder cancer is difficult to detect and diagnose because the symptoms of gallbladder cancer are like the symptoms of other diseases, Its symptoms or its signs cannot be found in the early stages, and it is hidden behind the liver.

The Signs and Symptoms of Gallbladder Cancer 

• Yellowing of skin and whitish of the eyes (jaundice)
• Weakness
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Fever
• Loss of appetite
• Lumps in the abdomen
• Bloating
• Pain above the stomach or abdominal pain
• Weight loss
• Dark urine
• Itchy skin
• Swelling in the belly

Risk Factors of Gallbladder Cancer

• Gender, it is common in women than men.
• Family history of gallbladder cancer
• Obesity
• Chronic thypoid infection of gallbladder
• Chronic Cholecystitis and Cholelithiasis
• Various single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)
• Older age
• Ethnicity and Geography
• Industrial and Environmental Chemicals

Diagnosis

Some tests and procedures are used to diagnose gallbladder cancer.

• Medical History is to get information about Patient"s health habit, past illness, and treatment.
• Physical Exam is to examine the body from signs or symptoms of gallbladder cancer.
• Liver Function Test  is a test in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by the liver.
• Carcinoembryonic Antingen (CEA) Assay is a test to measure the level of CEA in the blood.
• CA 19-9 Assay is a test to measure the level of CA 19-9 in the blood.
• Blood Chemistry Study is a procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood  the organs and tissues in the body.
• Computed Tomography (CT) scan is a procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, such as the chest, abdomen, and pelvis taken from different angles.
• Ultrasound Exam is a procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes.
• Percutaneous Transhepatic Cholangiography (PTC) is a procedure that uses x-ray to the liver, and bile ducts.
• Chest X-Ray is an x-ray of organs and bones inside the chest.
• Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is  a procedure that uses x-ray to the ducts that carry bile from liver to the gallbladder and from gallbladder to the small intestine.

The Stage of Gallbladder Cancer

• Stage 0 (Carcinoma In Situ) : Abnormal cells are found in the inner (mucosal) layer of the gallbladder.
• Stage I : Cancer has formed and has spread beyond the inner (mucosal) layer to a layer of tissue with blood vessels or to the muscle layer.
• Stage II : Cancer has spread beyond the muscle layer to the connective tissue around the muscle.
• Stage IIIA : Cancer has spread through the thin layers of tissue that cover the gallbladder and/or to the liver and/to one nearby organ, including the stomach, the small intestine, the colon, the pancreas or the bile ducts outside the liver.
• Stage IIIB : Cancer has spread nearby lymph nodes beyond the inner (mucosal) layer to a layer of tissue with blood vessels or to the muscle layer or beyond the muscle layer to the connective tissue around the muscle or through the thin layers of tissue that cover the gallbladder and/or to the liver and/to one nearby organ, including the stomach, the small intestine, the colon, the pancreas or the bile ducts outside the liver.
• Stage IVA : Cancer has spread to a main blood vessel of the liver or to two or more nearby organs or areas other than liver.Cancer may have spread to nearby lymph nodes.
• Stage IVB : Cancer has spread to either lymph nodes along large arteries in the abdomen and/or near the lower part of the backbone or to organs or areas far way from the gallbladder.

The Treatment of Gallbladder Cancer

1. Surgery

• Cholecystectomy is  to remove the gallbladder and some of tissues around it.
• Surgical Biliary bypass is done if the tumor is blocking the small intestine and bile is building up in the gallbladder.
• Endoscopic Stent Placement is done if the tumor is blocking bile ducts and puts in a stent to drain bile that has built up in the area.
• Percutaneous Transhepatic Biliary Drainage is done to drain bile when there is a blockage and endoscopic stent placement is impossible.

2. Radiation Therapy is a treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing.There are two types of radiation therapy.External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer.Internal radiation therapy uses a radiactive substance sealed in needles, seeds, wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer.

3. Chemotherapy is a treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing.

4. RadioSensitizers are drugs to make tumor cells more sensitive to radiation therapy.

5. Hyperthermia Therapy is a treatment in which body tissue is exposed to high temperatures to damage and kill cancer cells or to make cancer cells more sensitive to the effects of radiation therapy and certain anticancer drugs.

Drugs for Gallbladder Cancer

• Fluorouracil (5-FU)
• Capecitabine (Xeloda)
• Gemcitabine (Gemzar)
• Cisplatin (Platinol)
• Oxaliplatin (Eloxatin)

The side effects of these drugs

• Hair loss
• Fatigue
• Loss of appetite
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Diarrhea
• Sore mouth
• Easy bruising

Colorectal Cancer : Symptom, Risk Factor, Diagnosis, Stage, Treatment, And Drug

Colorectal Cancer (Colon Cancer) is the development of cancer in the colon or rectum.It is a disease originating from the epithelial cells lining the colon.The colon is the last part of digestive system.The colon consists of four sections, such as the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon, and the sigmoid colon.

The Signs and Symptoms of Colorectal Cancer

• Blood in the stool
• Unexplained weight loss
• Tiredness all time
• A change in bowel movements
• Loss of appetite
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Worsening constipation
• Decreasing in stool caliber (thickness)
• Frequent gas pains 
• Bloating
• Diarrhea
• Cramps
• Feeling fullness

Risk Factors of Colorectal Cancer

• Family history of colon cancer
• Older age
• Male gender
• Race
• Lifestyle
• A diet high in red, processed meat
• Fat intake highly
• Tobacco smoking
• Alcohol
• Exposure to radiation
• Inherited genetic disorders, such as Familial adenomatous polyposis
• Lack of physical activity
• Colon polyps
• Obesity
• Diabetes
• Other diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease ; Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis

Diagnosis

Some tests and procedures are used to diagnose the colon cancer.

• Medical History is to get information about Patient"s health habit, past illness, and treatment.
• Physical Examination is to examine the body from signs or symptoms of colon cancer.
• Digital Rectal Exam is an exam of rectum.
• Fecal Occult Blood Test is a test to check the stool (solid waste) for blood that can onlybe seen with a microscope.
• Multitarget Stool DNA Screening Test is a noninvasive test used to screen for the presence of colorectal cancer or precancerous lesions.
• Barium Enema is a series of x-rays of the lower of gastrointestinal tract.
• Sigmoidoscopy is a procedure to look inside the rectum and sigmoid colon for polyps, other abnormal areas, or cancer.
• Colonoscopy is a procedure to look inside the rectum and colon for polyps, other abnormal areas, or cancer.
• Virtual Colonoscopy is a procedure that uses  a seies of x-rays or computed tomography (CT) to make a series of pictures of the colon.
• Biopsy is the removal of cells or tissues and looked under a microscope.
• Computed Tomography (CT) scan produces detailed cross-sectional images of the body and determines the location and size of colorectal cancer and whether they have spread to nearby areas.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan provides very detailed images of colon and looks for cancer in the colon or cancer that has spread to nearby parts of body.
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan is a radioactive substance is injected into the blood
• Ultra sound uses sound waves to create images of parts of the body.
• Chest X-Ray is an x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest.
• Surgery is a procedure to remove the tumor and see how far cancer has spread through colon.
• Lymph Node Biopsy is the removal of all or part of a lymph node.
• Complete Blood Count is a procedure in which a blood sample is drawn and checked for the number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
• Carcinoembryonic Antingen (CEA) Assay is a test to measure the level of CEA in the blood.

The Stage of Colon Cancer

• Stage 0 (Carsinoma In Situ) : Abnormal cells are found in the mucosa (innermost layer) and the colon wall.

• Stage I : Cancer has spread from the mucosa of the colon wall to the muscle layer.

• Stage IIA : Cancer has spread through the muscle layer of the colon wall to the serosa (outermost layer) of the colon wall.

• Stage IIB : Cancer has spread through the serosa of the colon wall but has not spread to nearby organs.

• Stage IIC : Cancer has spread through the serosa of the colon wall to nearby organs.

• Stage IIIA : Cancer has spread through the mucosa of the colon wall to the submucosa and may have spread to the muscle layer.Cancer has spread to one to three nearby lymph nodes or tissues near the lymph nodes or Cancer has spread through the mucosa to the submucosa and four to six nearby lymph nodes.

• Stage IIIB : Cancer has spread through the muscle layer of the colon wall to the serosa.Cancer has spread through the serosa but not to nearby organs.It has spread through one to three nearby lymph nodes or tissues near the lymph nodes.Or Cancer has spread through the muscle layer or to the serosa, and to four to six nearby lymph nodes.Or Cancer has spread through the mucosa of the colon wall to the submucosa and may have spread through the muscle layer.It has spread to seven or more nearby lymph nodes.

• Stage IIIC : Cancer has spread through the serosa of the colon wall but not to nearby organs.It has spread four to six nearby lymph nodes.Or Cancer has spread through the muscle layer of the colon wall to the serosa or Cancer has spread through the serosa of the colon wall but not to nearby organs.It has spread to seven or more nearby lymph nodes.Or Cancer has spread through the serosa to nearby organs and to one or more nearby lymph nodes or to tissues near the lymph nodes.

• Stage IV : The cancer has spread through the blood and lymph nodes to other parts of the body, such as the lung, the liver,the abdominal wall or the ovary.

The Standard Treatments Of Colon Cancer

1. Surgery is the removal of cancer cells in operation.

• Local Excision is the removal of cancer without cutting through the abdominal wall if the cancer is found in the very early stage.
• Resection of the colon with Anastomosis is removing of the cancer and a small amount of healthy tissue around it if the cancer is larger and then sewing the healthy parts of the colon together.

2. Radio Frequency Ablation is the use of a special probe with electrodes that kill cancer cells.

3. Cryosurgery is a treatment that uses an instrument to freeze and destroy abnormal tissue.

4. Chemotherapy is a treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing.Chemoembolization of the hepatic artery is to treat cancer that has spread to the liver.

5. Radiation Therapy is a treatment that uses high-energy x-ray or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing.There are two types of radiation therapy.External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer.Internal radiation therapy uses a radiactive substance sealed in needles, seeds, wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer.

6. Targeted Therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells.

The Stage Treatments Of Colon Cancer

The Treatment of Stage 0 includes

• Local excision or simple polypectomy.
• Resection and Anastomosis.

The Treatment of Stage I includes

• Resection and Anastomosis.

The Treatment of Stage II includes

• Resection and Anastomosis.

The Treatment of Stage III includes

• Resection and Anastomosis which may be followed by chemotherapy.
• Clinical trials of new chemotherapy regiments after surgery.

The Treatment of Stage IV includes

• Local excision for tumors that have recurred.
• Resection with or without Anastomosis
• Surgery to remove parts of other organs, such as the liver, the lungs, and the ovaries where the cancer may have recurred or spread

The treatment for the cancer has spread to the liver includes

• Chemotherapy is given before surgery to shrink the tumor.Chemotherapy is done after surgery or both before and after surgery.
• Radiofrequency Ablation or Cryosurgery for patuents who cannot have surgery.
• Chemoembolization of the hepatic artery.
• Radiation Therapy or Chemotherapy is offered to some patients to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life.
• Chemotherapy and/or Targeted Therapy with a monoclonal antibody or an angiogenesis inhibitor.
• Clinical trials of chemotherapy and/or Targeted Therapy

Drugs For Colon Cancer approved by The Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

• Avastin ( Bevacizumab)
• Bevacizumab
• Camptosar (Irinotecan Hydrochloride)
• Capecitabine
• Cetuximab
• Cyramza (Ramucirumab)
• Eloxatin (Oxaliplatin)
• Erbitux (Cetuximab)
• 5-FU (Fluorouracil Injection)
• Fluorouracil Injection
• Irinotecan Hydrochloride
• Leucovorin Calcium
• Lonsurf (Trifluridine and Tipiracil Hydrochloride)
• Oxaliplatin
• Panitumumab
• Ramucirumab
• Regorafenib
• Stivarga (Regorafenib)
• Trifluridine and Tipiracil Hydrochloride
• Vectibix (Panitumumab)
• Wellcovorin (Leucovorin Calcium)
• Xeloda (Capecitabine)
• Zaltrap (Ziv-Aflibercept)
• Ziv-Aflibercept

Drug Combinations for Colon Cancer

• Capox
• Folfiri
• Folfiri-Bevacizumab
• Folfiri-Cetuximab
• Folfox
• FU-LV
• Xeliri
• Xelox

Prevention of Colon Cancer

• Increased surveillance.
• Comsumption of whole grains, fruits, and vegetables.
• Reducing red meat intake.
• Physical exercises regularly.

Thyroid Cancer : Type, Symptom, Risk Factor, Diagnosis, Stage, Treatment, And Drug

Thyroid Cancer is a cancer that begins in the thyroid gland.The thyroid is a large ductless gland in the neck that secrets hormones regulating growth and development through the rate of metabolism.The thyroid gland has two main types of cells.Follicular cells use iodine from the blood to make thyroid hormones, which help in regulating a person's metabolism.Parafollicular cells make calcitonin that a hormone helps in controlling how the body uses calcium.Thyroid nodules are lumps or bumps in the thyroid gland.The thyroid cannot be felt and seen in the most people.

The Types of Thyroid Cancers

1. Differentiated Thyroid Cancer

• Papillary Thyroid Cancer (PTC) tends to grow very slowly and usually develops in only one lobe of the thyroid gland.
• Follicular Thyroid Cancer (FTC) spreads to other parts of body, such as the bones and lungs.

2. Undifferentiated Thyroid Cancer

• Medullary Thyroid Cancer (MTC) develops from the follicular cells of the thyroid gland.Sometimes it can spread into lymph nodes, the lungs or liver even before a thyroid nodule is discovered.
• Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer (ATC) often spreads quickly into the neck and to other parts of the body.It sometimes develops from an existing palpillary or follicular cancer.It is very difficult to treat.

The Signs or Symptoms of Thyroid Cancer

• A lump in front of the neck , sometimes growing quickly.
• Swollen glands in the neck.
• Pain in the throat or neck, sometimes going up to the ears.
• Hoarseness.
• Difficulty in swallowing.
• Trouble breathing.
• A constant cough that is not due to a cold.

The Risk Factors of Thyroid Cancer

• Age
• Gender
• Family history of thyroid cancer
• A diet low in iodine
• Exposure to ionizing radiation
• Certain inherited medical conditions, such as cowden disease, corney complex type I, familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP)

Diagnosis

Some tests are performed to diagnose the thyroid cancer as follow :

• Medical history and physical exam are to get more informations about family of having thyroid cancer and examine possible symptoms of thyroid cancer and any other health problems.
• Biopsy is a test in which cells from the suspicious area are removed and looked under a microscope.
• Computed Tomography (CT) scan produces detailed cross-sectional images of the body and determines the location and size of thyroid cancer and whether they have spread to nearby areas.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan provides very detailed images of thyroid gland and looks for cancer in the thyroid or cancer that has spread to nearby parts of body.
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan is a radioactive substance is injected into the blood.
• Ultra sound uses sound waves to create images of parts of the body.It can determine if a thyroid nodule is solid or filled with fluid.
• Radioiodine scan is to determine if someone with a lump in the neck might have thyroid cancer.
• Chest X-Ray is to see if cancer has spread to the lungs.
• Vocal Cord Exam (Laryngoscopy) is a procedure to see if the vocal cords are moving normally.
• Blood Tests help in showing if the thyroid is working normally.Carcinoembryonic antingen (CEA) is high blood levels of  a protein.Test for CEA sometimes helps in finding medullary thyroid cancer.Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is blood test to check the overall activity of the thyroid gland.

THE STAGES OF THYROID CANCER

The Stages of Papillary and Follicular Thyroid Cancers in patients younger than 45 years old

• Stage I : The tumor is any size, may be in the thyroid or may have spread to nearby tissues and lymph nodes.Cancer has not spread into the other parts of the body.
• Stage II : The tumor is any size and has spread from the thyroid into the other parts of the body, such as the lungs, or bone and may have spread to lymph nodes

The Stages of Papillary and Follicular Thyroid Cancers in patients 45 years old and older

• Stage I  : Cancer is found only in the thyroid.Cancer is 2 centimeters or smaller.

• Stage II : Cancer is found only in the thyroid.Cancer is larger than 2 centimeters but not larger than 4 centimeters.
• Stage III : Cancer is found only in the thyroid and cancer is larger than 4 centimeters or cancer is any size and has spread to tissues just outside the thyroid, but not to lymph nodes.

• Stage IVA : Cancer is any size and has spread to tissue just outside the thyroid.Cancer has spread to lymph nodes on one or both sides of the neck or between the lungs.

• Stage IVB : Cancer has spread to the tissue in front of the spinal column or has surrounded the carotid artery or the blood vessels in the area between the lungs.Cancer may have spread to lymph nodes.

• Stage IVC : Cancer is any size and has spread to other parts of the body, such as the lungs and the bones.Cancer may have spread to lymph nodes.

The Stages of Medullary Thyroid Cancer for All Ages

• Stage 0 : There is no cancer found in the thyroid.
• Stage I : Cancer is found only in the thyroid.Cancer is 2 centimeters or smaller.
• Stage II : Cancer is found only in the thyroid.Cancer is larger than 2 centimeters or cancer has spread to tissues just outside the thyroid, but not to lymph nodes.
• Stage III : Cancer is any size and has spread to lymph nodes near the trachea and the larynx.Cancer may have spread to tissues just outside the thyroid.
• Stage IVA : Cancer is any size and has spread to tissue just outside the thyroid.Cancer has spread to lymph nodes on one or both sides of the neck or between the lungs.
• Stage IVB : Cancer has spread to the tissue in front of the spinal column or has surrounded the carotid artery or the blood vessels in the area between the lungs.Cancer may have spread to lymph nodes.
• Stage IVC : Cancer is any size and has spread to other parts of the body, such as the lungs and the bones.Cancer may have spread to lymph nodes.

Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer is considered in Stage IV

Anaplastic thyroid cancer grows rapidly.It usually spread within the neck when it is found.

• Stage IVA : Cancer is found in the thyroid and may have spread to lymph nodes.
• Stage IVB : Cancer has spread to tissue just outside the thyroid and may have spread to lymph nodes.
• Stage IVC : Cancer has spread to other parts of the body, such as the lungs and the bones.Cancer may have spread to lymph nodes.

TREATMENT OF THYROID CANCER

The Treatments of Papillary and Follicular Thyroid Cancers in Stage I and Stage II include

• Total or Near-Total Thyroidectomy with or without Radioactive Iodine Therapy.
• Lobectomy or removal of lymph nodes that contain cancer, followed by Hormone Therapy.
• Radioactive Iodine Therapy may be given following surgery.

The Treatments of Papillary and Follicular Thyroid Cancers in Stage III include

• Total Thyroidectomy
• Radioactive Iodine Therapy or External Radiation Therapy may be given after surgery.

The Treatments of Papillary and Follicular Thyroid Cancers in Stage IV include

Cancer has spread to lymph nodes can be treated.Cancer has spread to other parts of the body, such as the lungs and the bones cannot be treated but can relieve the symptoms and can improve the quality of life.The treatments can be done as follow :

Tumors that take up iodine

• Radioactive Iodine Therapy

Tumors that do not take up iodine

• Hormone Therapy.
• Targeted Therapy with a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (sorafenib).
• Surgery by removing cancer from areas where it has spread.
• External-Beam Radiation Therapy.
• A clinical trial of Chemotherapy
• A clinical trial of Targeted Therapy.

The Treatment of Medullary Thyroid Cancer includes

• Total Thyroidectomy if the cancer has not spread to other parts of body.
• Removal of lymph nodes that contain cancer.
• External Radiation Therapy as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life for patients whose cancer has recurred in the thyroid.
• Targeted Therapy with a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (vandetanib) for cancer has spread to other parts of body.
• Chemotherapy as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life for patients whose cancer has spread to other parts of body.

The Treatment of Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer includes

• Tracheostomy as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life.
• Total Thyroidectomy as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life for patients whose cancer has not spread away from the thyroid.
• External Radiation Therapy.
• Chemotherapy
• A clinical trial of Total Thyroidectomy followed by Chemotherapy and Radiation Therapy.

The Standard Treatment For Cancer

1. Surgery is to treat thyroid cancer.

• Lobectomy is removal of lobe in which thyroid cancer is found.
• Near-Total Thyroidectomy is removal of all but a very small part of the thyroid.
• Total Thyroidectomy is removal of the whole thyroid.
• Lymphadenectomy is removal of lymph nodes in the neck that contain cancer.

2. Radiation Therapy is a treatment that uses high-energy x-ray or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing.There are two types of radiation therapy.External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer.Internal radiation therapy uses a radiactive substance sealed in needles, seeds, wires or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer.

3. Chemotherapy is a treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing.

4. Thyroid Hormone Therapy is a treatment that removes hormones or blocks their action and stops cancer cells from growing.

5. Targeted Therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells.

Drugs for Thyroid Cancer approved by The Food And Drug Administration (FDA)

• Cabozantinib-S-Malate
• Caprelsa (Vandetanib)
• Cometriq (Cabozantinib-S-Malate)
• Doxorubicin Hydrochloride
• Lenvatinib Mesylate
• Lenvima (Lenvatinib Mesylate)
• Nexavar (Sorafenib Tosylate)
• Sorafenib Tosylate
• Vandetanib

Brain Cancer : Type, Symptom, Risk Factor, Diagnosis, Grade, Treatment, And Drug

A Brain Tumor (Intracranial neoplasm) occurs when abnormal cells from within the brain.The brain of human is composed of very soft tissue and a gelatin-like texture.Three separate brain areas make up most of the brain's volume, such as telencephalon, mesencephalon, and cerebellum.

The Brain consists of four main parts namely :

• The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain.It contains two cerebral hemispheres on either side of the brain that each control the opposite side of the body.
• The cerebellum is located at the back part of the brain below the cerebrum.
• The brain stem is the portion of the brain that connects to the spinal cord.
• The meninges are the membranes that  surround and protect the brain and spinal cord.

The Characteristics of Tumor :

• Anaplasia or Dedifferentiation is the loss of diffentiation of cells and of their orientation to one another and blood vessels.
• Atypia is an indication of abnormality of a cell.
• Neoplasia is the uncontrolled division of cells.
• Necrosis is the premature or death of cells caused by external factors, such as infection, toxin, and trauma.

There are two main Types of Tumors :

• Malignant or Cancerous Tumors contain cancer cells.These tumors will infiltrate the surrounding tissue.
• Benign Tumors or Non-Cancerous Tumors do not contain cancer cells.These tumors may be present  for some years and be asymptomatic.

The Characteristics of Malignant Tumors

1. Uncontrolled mitosis that is the growth by division beyond the normal limits.
2. Anaplasia is the cells in the neoplasm have an obviously different form in size and shape.
3. Invasion or invasiveness is the spatial expansion of the tumor through uncontrolled mitosis, in the sense that the neoplasm invades the space occupied by adjacent tissue, thereby pushing the other tissues aside and eventually compressing the tissue.
4. Infiltration is the behaviour of the tumor either to grow (microscopic) tentacles that push into the surrounding tissue that often makes the outline of the tumor undefined.It has tumor cells "seeded" into the tissue beyond the circumference of the tumorous mass.
5. Metastasis that spread to other locations in the body via lymph or blood.

Malignant or Cancerous Tumors can be divided into two :

• Primary Tumors begin within the brain.These tumors are generally invasive or they will expand spatially and intrude into the space occupied by other brain tissues and compress those brain tissues.
• Secondary Tumors or Metastasis Tumors start elsewhere in the body sends cells which end up growing in the brain.

The most common of Primary Tumors

1. Gliomas are tumors that grow from the glial cells which are the supportive cell in the brain.Gliomas include :

• Astrocytoma begins in cells called astrocytes in the cerebrum or cerebellum.
• Oligodendroglioma develops from cells called oligodendrocytes.
• Mixed Glioma is made up of more than one of the gliac cell types.
• Ependymoma begins in the passageways in the brain where CSF is made and stored.
• Brain Stem Glioma begins in the glial cells in the brain stem.

2. Non-Gliomas include :

• Meningioma is a tumor that begins in the meninges.
• Pineal gland and Pituitary Adenomas are tumors that begin in the pineal gland and pituitary gland.
• Primary CNS lymphoma is a tumor that begins in the lymphatic system.
• Medulloblastoma is a tumor that begins in granular cells in the cerebellum.It is most common in children.
• Craniopharyngioma is a benign tumor that begins near the pituitary gland located near the base of the brain.
• Acoustic schwannoma is a rare tumor that begins in the vestibular nerve, which is a nerve in the inner ear that helps control balance.

Astrocytoma is a glioma cancer that begins in astrocytes in the cerebrum or cerebellum.

There are four grades of Astrocytoma :

• Grade I (Pilocytic Astrocytoma ) : A slow growing tumor that is most often benign and rarely spreads into nearby tissue.
• Grade II (Low-Grade Diffuse Astrocytoma : A slow growing tumor that can often spread into nearby tissue and can become a higher grade.
• Grade III (Anaplastic Astrocytoma) : a cancerous tumor that can grow quickly and spread into nearby tissues.
• Grade IV (Glioblastoma) is a very agressive form of astrocytoma.

The Symptoms of Brain Tumor

• Vomiting
• Nausea
• Headache
• Dilation of the pupil on the side of the lesion
• Double vision 
• Papilledema
• Memory loss
• Lack of recognition
• Seizures
• Dizziness
• Personality or emotional changes
• Impaired sense of smell
• Impaired hearing
• Facial paralysis
• Visual field impairement
• Difficulty in speaking and with sensation
• Difficulty in walking
• Abnormal fatigue
• Weariness
• Absences and tremors
• Unconsciousness

Risk Factors of Brain Tumor

• Family history of brain tumor
• Inherited conditions or neurofibromatosis
• Age
• Gender
• The Epstein-Barr virus
• Exposure to the industrial chemical, such as vinyl chloride.
• Ionizing radiation.
• N-Nitroso compounds
• Exposure to Nerve agents
• Race or ethnicity
• Home and work exposures
• Electromagnetic fields
• Head injury and seizures

Diagnosis

There is no specific or singular clinical symptom or sign for any brain tumors, the presence of a combination of symptoms and the lack of corresponding clinical indication of infections or other causes can be an indicator to redirect diagnostic investigation towards the possibility of an intracranial neoplasm.

The diagnosis will start by taking :

• A medical history notes medical antecedents and symptoms.
• Cinical and laboratory investigations serve to exclude infections as the cause of symptoms.
• Gene Testing is a laboratory test in which a sample of blood or tissue is tested for changes in a chromosome that has been linked with a certain type of brain tumor.It is done to diagnose inherited syndrome.
• Examinations in the stage include the eyes, otolaryngological (ENT), and electrophysiological exams.
• The use of Electroencephalography.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) with gadolinium is a procedure that uses magnet, radio, waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of the brain and spinal cord.It is as indicator for malignant gliomas, meningiomas, and brain metastases.
• Computed Tomography (CT) scan is the procedure that make a series of detailed picture of areas inside the body.
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan is a procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body.
• Histoligical examination of tumor tissue sample obtained either by means of brain biopsy or open surgery.It is to determine the appropriate treatment and the correct prognosis.A Stereotactic biopsy is done when imaging tests show there may be a tumor deep in the brain and it is hard to reach.An Open biopsy is done when imaging tests show that there may be a tumor that can be removed by surgery.

Tumor Grading System based on WHO

• Grade I (Low Grade) : The tumor cells look more like normal cells under a microscope and grow and spread slower than grade II, III, and IV tumor cells.They rarely spread into nearby tissues.The grade I can be treated by surgery.
• Grade II : The tumor cells  grow and spread slower than grade III and IV tumor cells.They may spread into nearby tissues and may recur.Some tumors may become a higher-grade tumor.
• Grade III : The tumor cells look different from normal cells under a microscope and grow quicklier than grade I and II tumor cells.cells.They are likely to spread into nearby tissues .
• Grade IV (High Grade) : The tumor cells do not look like normal cells under a microscope and grow and spread very quickly.There may be areas of dead cells in the tumor.The Grade IV cannot be treated.

Treatment of Brain Tumor

The treatments of brain tumor depend on the type , grade, and the location of neoplasm. The treatnents can be done by ways :

1. Active Surveillance is closely watching a patient's condition but not giving  any treatment unless there are changes in test results that show condition is getting worse.
2. Surgery is  to remove tumor  tissue  in order that it decreases pressure of the tumor on nearby parts of the brain.
3. Radiation Therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing.The way of radiation therapy is given depending on the type, grade, and location of the tumor.The ways of giving radiation therapy as follow :

• 3-Dimensional Conformal Radiation Therapy is a procedure that uses a computer to create a 3-dimensional (3-D) picture of the brain or spinal cord tumor.
• Intensity-modulated Radiation Therapy is a type of 3-D radiation therapy that uses a computer to make picturesof the size and shape of the brain or spinal cord tumor.
• Stereotactic Radiosurgery is a type of radiation therapy that uses a head frame attached to the skull to aim a single large dose of radiation directly to a brain tumor

4. Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing.

5. Targeted Therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells.

• Monoclonal Antibody Therapy is a type of targeted therapy that uses antibodies made in the laboratory from a single type of immune system cell.Bevacizumab is monoclonal antibody that binds to a protein called vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and may prevent the growth of new blood vessels that tumors need to grow.

6. Proton Beam Radiation Therapy is a type of high - energy, external radiation therapy that uses streams of protons (small, positively-charged pieces of matter) to make radiation.

7. Biologic Therapy is a treatment that uses the patient's immune system to fight cancer.

Drugs approved by FDA (Food and Drug Administration) for Brain Tumor.

• Afinitor (Everolimus)
• Afinitor Disperz (Everolimus)
• Avastin (Bevacizumab)
• Becenum (Carmustine)
• Bevacizumab
• BiCMU (Carmustine)
• Carmubris (Carmustine)
• Carmustine
• Carmustine Implant
• CeeNu (Lomustine)
• Everolimus
• Gliadel (Carmustine Implant)
• Gliadel Wafer (Carmustine Implant)
• Lomustine
• Methazolastone (Temozolomide)
• Temodar (Temozolomide)
• Temozolomide

Drugs Combinations used in Brain Tumor

• PVC